1 What is a cryogenic ball valve?
A cryogenic ball valve is a ball valve that can operate below -40°C and can operate effectively at temperatures as low as -196°C (-320°F). Cryogenic ball valves are primarily used for gas liquefaction and are most commonly used by companies using liquefied natural gas (LNG) or compressed natural gas (CNG).
3. What types of cryogenic ball valve does Freeman Valve produce?
3.01 Freeman Valve produces Series 13 Model 02 cryogenic ball valve, which can operate effectively within the temperature range of -196℃ ~ +80℃;
3.07 Freeman Valve produces Series 13 Model 02 low temperature ball valve, which can operate effectively within the temperature range of -196℃ ~ +80℃;
5. At what temperatures can the cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve operate stably?
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -40℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -41℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -42℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -43℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -44℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -45℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -46℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -47℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -48℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -49℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -50℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -51℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -52℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -53℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -54℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -55℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -56℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -57℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -58℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -59℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -60℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -61℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -62℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -63℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -64℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -65℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -66℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -67℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -68℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -69℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -70℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -71℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -72℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -73℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -74℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -75℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -76℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -77℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -78℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -79℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -80℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -81℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -82℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -83℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -84℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -85℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -86℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -87℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -88℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -89℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -90℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -91℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -92℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -93℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -94℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -95℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -96℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -97℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -98℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -99℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -100℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -101℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -102℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -103℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -104℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -105℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -106℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -107℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -108℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -109℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -110℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -111℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -112℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -113℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -114℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -115℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -116℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -117℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -118℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -119℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -120℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -121℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -122℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -123℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -124℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -125℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -126℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -127℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -128℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -129℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -130℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -131℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -132℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -133℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -134℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -135℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -136℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -137℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -138℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -139℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -140℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -141℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -142℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -143℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -144℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -145℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -146℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -147℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -148℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -149℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -150℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -151℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -152℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -153℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -154℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -155℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -156℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -157℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -158℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -159℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -160℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -161℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -162℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -163℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -164℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -165℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -166℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -167℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -168℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -169℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -170℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -171℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -172℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -173℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -174℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -175℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -176℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -177℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -178℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -179℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -180℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -181℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -182℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -183℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -184℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -185℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -186℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -187℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -188℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -189℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -190℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -191℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -192℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -193℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -194℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -195℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -196℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -197℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -198℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -199℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -200℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -201℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -202℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -203℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -204℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -205℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -206℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -207℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -208℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -209℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -210℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -211℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -212℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -213℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -214℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -215℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -216℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -217℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -218℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -219℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -220℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -221℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -222℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -223℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -224℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -225℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -226℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -227℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -228℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -229℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -230℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -231℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -232℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -233℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -234℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -235℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -236℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -237℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -238℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -239℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -240℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -241℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -242℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -243℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -244℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -245℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -246℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -247℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -248℃
The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can operate stably at -249℃
6. Where are the cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve mainly used?
6.1 The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can be used for LNG;
6.2 The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can be used for LPG;
6.3 The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can be used for Liquid Oxygen;
6.4 The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can be used for Liquid Methane;
6.5 The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can be used for Liquid Nitrogen;
6.6 The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can be used for Liquid Helium;
6.7 The cryogenic ball valve produced by Freeman Valve can be used for Liquid Hydrogen.
Cryogenic ball valves often face the following challenges:
1. Cryogenic ball valve material brittleness at low temperatures: Most metals transition from a ductile state to a brittle state at extremely low temperatures, making them susceptible to fracture. Materials with excellent low-temperature toughness, such as austenitic stainless steel (such as 304, 316, 316L), Inconel, Monel, or copper alloys, must be selected.
2. Cryogenic ball valve material shrinkage discrepancies: Different materials, such as the valve body, ball, stem, and seals, have different coefficients of thermal expansion, resulting in varying degrees of shrinkage at low temperatures. This can lead to seizure, leakage, or abnormally increased operating torque.
3. Cryogenic ball valve sealing challenges: Soft seals (such as PTFE), which are effective at room temperature, harden and shrink at low temperatures, losing their elasticity. This necessitates the use of special low-temperature modified materials or unique metal seal designs.
4. Cryogenic ball valves must prevent "ice lock" and frost formation: Valves must prevent moisture from freezing on the outside, potentially rendering the valve inoperable (ice lock). A long-neck bonnet design is a common solution.
5. Insulation and Cold Retention of Cryogenic Ball Valves: To minimize cooling loss and prevent external heat transfer that could cause vaporization of the medium, valves typically require a long-necked bonnet or even a vacuum jacket design.
1. Series 13 Model 02 LNG Ball Valve (Liquefied Natural Gas Ball Valve):
1.1 Media Characteristics: LNG is primarily composed of methane, which has a boiling point of approximately -162°C at atmospheric pressure and is flammable and explosive.
1.2 Advantages of the Series 13 Model 02 LNG Ball Valve:
① Mature Technology: Due to the highly mature LNG industry chain, this type of valve is one of the most widely used and technologically mature cryogenic valves.
② Reliable Sealing: Typically employing an "upstream seal" + metal seal design, when the valve is closed, the medium pressure strengthens the seal, achieving zero leakage.
③ Long Neck Design: The standard long-neck bonnet effectively isolates the cold source, protects the stuffing box at near-ambient temperatures, prevents freezing, and ensures seal performance.
④ Fire Safety: Many LNG ball valves are designed with fire protection features, ensuring they maintain a seal for a certain period of time even in the event of a fire.
2. Series 13 Model 02 LPG Ball Valve (Liquefied Petroleum Gas Ball Valve):
2.1 Media Characteristics: LPG is a mixture of propane and butane. Its liquefaction pressure is relatively high (approximately 0.8-2 MPa at room temperature), but its temperature is relatively high (approximately -40°C to 0°C).
2.2 Advantages of the Series 13 Model 02 LPG Ball Valve:
① Relatively mild operating conditions: Compared to LNG and other liquids, its cryogenic temperature is less severe (cryogenic, not cryogenic), placing slightly lower demands on the material's cryogenic performance.
② Emphasis on pressure sealing: The design focuses on withstanding higher internal pressures, and the sealing structure must balance pressure and cryogenic conditions.
③ A wider range of material options: In addition to stainless steel, some specially treated carbon steels can also be used in certain LPG applications.
2.3 Issues to note when using the Series 13 Model 02 LPG Ball Valve:
① Leakage risk: LPG has a higher density than air after vaporization. If leaked, it will accumulate on the ground, posing a high risk of explosion. Therefore, the valve's sealing reliability is extremely high.
② Low-temperature design is still required: Although the temperature is not extremely low, low-temperature shrinkage and cold insulation must still be considered, and it cannot be used completely as a normal-temperature, high-pressure valve.
3. Series 13 Model 02 Liquid Oxygen Ball Valve:
3.1 Media Characteristics: Boiling point -183°C, it is highly combustible, and contact with grease can easily cause explosion, making it extremely dangerous.
3.2 Advantages of the Series 13 Model 02 Liquid Oxygen Ball Valve:
① Absolute Oil-Free and Ultra-High Cleanliness: The manufacturing process requires rigorous degreasing, cleaning, and packaging to ensure that the valve cavity is free of grease and contaminants. This is its core advantage and requirement.
② Compatible Materials: Materials compatible with liquid oxygen (such as 316L stainless steel and Monel) must be used to avoid sparks caused by high-speed fluid impact.
③ Special Treatment: All parts are polished (with an extremely low Ra value) to reduce the risk of friction fire.
4. Series 13 Model 02 Liquid Methane Ball Valve:
4.1 Media Characteristics: Boiling point -161.5°C, the same main component as LNG, flammable.
4.2 Advantages of the Series 13 Model 02 Liquid Methane Ball Valve:
① Highly Similar to LNG Valves: Its design, materials, advantages and disadvantages are almost identical to those of LNG ball valves, and they can be classified in the same general category.
② Strong Technical Versatility: The technology used in LNG ball valves can be directly applied to liquid methane services.
5. Series 13 Model 02 Liquid Nitrogen Ball Valve:
5.1 Media Characteristics: Boiling point -196°C, inert, colorless and odorless, but with extremely low cryogenic temperatures.
5.2 Advantages of the Series 13 Model 02 Liquid Nitrogen Ball Valve:
① Relatively safe: The medium itself is non-flammable and non-explosive, with the main risks being low-temperature burns and asphyxiation. Therefore, the fire and explosion resistance requirements for the materials are lower than those for LNG and oxygen.
② Widely applicable: It is widely used in the food, medical, electronics, scientific research, and other fields, and the valve product line is extensive, offering a wide range of options.
③ Designed with a focus on cold insulation: Due to the extremely low temperatures, the long-necked bonnet has very high requirements for length and cold insulation performance to minimize vaporization losses.
5.3 Issues to note when using the Series 13 Model 02 Liquid Nitrogen Ball Valve:
① Easily vaporize: A good cold insulation design is crucial; otherwise, vaporization of the medium within the valve will cause an abnormal increase in pressure (water hammer).
6. Series 13 Model 02 Liquid Helium Ball Valve:
6.1 Medium Characteristics: With a boiling point of -269°C, close to absolute zero, it has the lowest boiling point of any substance in nature. It vaporizes easily and is highly permeable.
6.2 Advantages of the Series 13 Model 02 Liquid Nitrogen Ball Valve:
① Cutting-edge cryogenic technology: Represents the highest technical standards for cryogenic valves, typically utilizing specialized alloys and sophisticated design;
② Ultimate thermal insulation: Vacuum-jacketed bonnet and body are almost exclusively used to minimize heat transfer and maintain the liquid state;
③ Ultra-high-precision manufacturing: Extremely high machining and assembly precision are required to accommodate significant temperature differential contraction and prevent micro-leaks.
7. Series 13 Model 02 Liquid Hydrogen Ball Valve:
7.1 Media Characteristics: Boiling point -253°C, flammable and explosive, extremely low density, and low viscosity, resulting in extremely high permeability and leakage.
7.2 Advantages of the Series 13 Model 02 Liquid Nitrogen Ball Valve:
① Ultra-low leakage standards: It must meet extremely high sealing levels (typically requiring zero leakage), making seal design a core challenge as well as an advantage.
② Lightweight material application: To reduce weight (especially in the aerospace industry), lightweight, cryogenic materials such as aluminum alloy are often used, supplemented with special surface treatments.
③ Composite insulation technology: A "long neck + vacuum jacket" design is often employed, simultaneously addressing both cold insulation and operational issues.
7.3 Considerations for Using the Series 13 Model 02 Liquid Nitrogen Ball Valve:
① One of the most technically challenging: Combining low temperatures (near liquid helium), high pressure (often requiring storage), flammability and explosiveness, and high permeability, this ball valve is one of the most technically complex.
② Extremely high cost: Second only to or equivalent to liquid helium valves.
③ Hydrogen embrittlement risk: Certain materials may experience hydrogen embrittlement in a long-term hydrogen environment, resulting in performance degradation. Therefore, material selection requires extreme caution.
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